South Asian Journal of Parasitology

Determination of the Prevalence of Malaria Infection and the Influence of Overuse and Misuse of Insecticide Treated Nets in Omoku Rivers State, Nigeria

Isomah, Abiye Chiladi — 2026-05-25

Malaria is an endemic disease caused by Plasmodium, which is transmitted through the female anopheles mosquitoes. It is a devastating disease that threatens productivity and the economy of endemic countries like Nigeria. The study aimed at the prevalence rate of malaria infection regarding the overuse and misuse of insecticide-treated nets. A total number of eighty-two (82) children were recruited for this study, with a questionnaire administered to them and blood samples were taken for examination of the parasites using thick film and rapid diagnostic test methods. The result showed that the prevalence of malaria infection among the children aged 1-17 years, as diagnosed via microscopy and Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) were 12.2% and 8.5% respectively, there was no statistically significant association of malaria infection with the use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), family education on the use of ITNs and other malaria control and prevention, residing in bushy, slump, and water-logged areas. Staying outdoors at dawn/dusk. This study also determined the association of malaria infection with some clinical data and risk factors. However, there was no statistically significant association of malaria infection with a history of symptoms (headache, fever, and muscle pain), previous malaria treatment, self-medication, and family history of the infection. From this study, it can be concluded that there was no association of the malaria infection with some clinical data and risk factor. However, proper sanitation and a healthy lifestyle should be sustained to limit the effect and spread of Malaria infection.

Microscopic and Molecular Detection of Intestinal Parasites Prevalence in Patients Attending Health Facilities in Anambra State, Nigeria

Evelyn N. Ekekwe — 2026-06-06

Background: Intestinal parasitic infections remain a major public health problem in developing countries, especially among children, with limited data on their prevalence in Nigeria using both microscopy and molecular diagnostic methods.

Aims: Intestinal parasitic infections (IPI’s) constitute a global health burden in the developing countries. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of IPIs in two locations using microscopy and molecular techniques. The detection efficiency of the two methods was also compared.

Study Design: A cross-sectional study was conducted from June to October 2023 on 1440 participants, comprising 724 males and 716 females of ages between 10 and 60 years.

Methodology: The study was carried out among subjects attending clinics and health facilities in two cities/ locations. The locations consisted of Awka and Onitsha Metropolis, both in Anambra State of Nigeria. Preliminary macroscopic examination was carried out to determine the color, consistency as well as the presence of blood, mucus, pus and adult worms in the stool sample. In microscopic examination, normal saline/iodine wet mount and the formol-ether concentration method was used in stool preparations to identify the parasites. In molecular technique, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction was carried out QIAamp PowerFecal Pro DNA Kit (QB).

Results: The prevalence of intestinal parasites was 33.3% and 46.0% using microscopy and PCR, respectively. The protozoans identified were Giardia lamblia (11.3%, 12.1%), Entamoeba histolytica (10.8%, 11.8%), and Cryptosporidium parvum (8.3%, 10.0%). The helminths identified were Ascaris lumbricoides (24.2%, 21.4%), hookworm (21.3%, 19.2%), Trichuris trichuria (19.6%, 18.2%), and Strongyloides stercoralis (4.6%, 7.4%). Gender was not a significant factor, but age was significant (p=.001).

Conclusions: Prevalence of intestinal parasites infections was moderately high in the two study areas. Periodic screening, treatment of children, and public enlightenment with emphasis on personal hygiene and a clean environment are advocated.

Association between Malaria Infection, Anemia, and Nutritional Status among Children and Pre-adolescents Attending Taraba State Specialist Hospital, Jalingo, Taraba State, Nigeria

C. N. Okeke — 2026-06-09

Malaria, anemia, and malnutrition are major public health challenges among children in sub-Saharan Africa, often coexisting and interacting in complex ways that worsen health outcomes. Despite their high burden, limited facility-based data exist on their interrelationship among children and pre-adolescents in northeastern Nigeria. This study assessed the association between malaria infection, anemia, and nutritional status among children and pre-adolescents attending Taraba State Specialist Hospital, Jalingo, Nigeria. A facility-based cross-sectional analytical study was conducted among 360 children aged 2 to 14 years selected using systematic random sampling. Malaria diagnosis was performed using microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests, hemoglobin concentration was measured using a urit-12 Haemoglobinometer, and nutritional status was assessed using body mass index (BMI) based on WHO standards. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 27, and associations were tested using chi-square statistics at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05. The overall prevalence of malaria infection was 70.3%. Malaria prevalence was slightly higher among males (72.6%) than females (67.8%), though not statistically significant (p = 0.323). A significant association was observed between malaria infection and anemia status (χ² = 13.54; p = 0.004), with the highest prevalence recorded among moderately anemic children (75.3%). Although a higher proportion of underweight children (70.7%) were malaria-positive, the association between malaria infection and BMI was not statistically significant (p = 0.370). The study revealed a high burden of malaria among children in the study area, with a significant association between malaria infection and anemia but not nutritional status. These findings highlight the need for integrated interventions targeting malaria control and anemia management to improve child health outcomes in endemic settings.

Assessment of Genetic Diversity of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoite Surface Protein 1 from Infected Residents in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

Sime Abiye Abere — 2026-06-09

Malaria continues to pose a substantial public health challenge in Nigeria, with about 30.9% of the global malaria mortality burden. The challenges in achieving elimination may be attributed, in part, to the high genetic diversity of the parasite. This study was carried out to assess the genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum in Port Harcourt metropolis. A total of 184 uncoagulated blood samples were collected from patients who presented at some designated clinical laboratories in Port Harcourt. Samples were stained by the Giemsa technique and screened microscopically for the presence of Plasmodium falciparum. A total of 98 samples were found to be positive for Plasmodium falciparum, out of which 20 were randomly selected for molecular analysis for the presence of merozoite surface protein-1 alleles (R0333, MAD20, K1) using nested PCR method. The result revealed the presence of the three alleles, with R033 being the most prevalent with 45%, followed by K1 (32%) and MAD20 (23%). Study revealed that 45% of the infections were monoclonal infections, 30% were polyclonal while 25% had no expression of any allele which suggests that the parasitaemia in those samples were quite low. The findings of this study reveal that there is moderate genetic diversity in the study population with a heterozygosity (He) of 0.641. Although a moderate genetic diversity was observed, the multiplicity of infection (MOI) in this study was 1.1, which is usually seen in an area of low transmission. This low MOI observed in this study can be as a result of people in the population taking antimalarial medications before seeking medical attention. Study needs further elucidation.

Prevalence, Hematological, and Biochemical Correlates of Malaria-HBV Co-Infection among Pregnant Women in Enugu State, Nigeria

Chiesonu G. Iziga-Eruchalu — 2026-06-12

Nigeria bears a heavy dual burden of malaria and Hepatitis B virus (HBV) globally. Because both pathogens target the liver during critical phases of their life cycles, co-infection can result in significant hematological and biochemical interactions. This study evaluated the prevalence of single and co-infections of malaria and HBV in Enugu State, as well as their impact on hematological and biochemical parameters. A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted across three healthcare facilities in Enugu State. Structured questionnaires were administered to 250 consenting pregnant women to gather socio-demographic data. Body Mass Index (BMI) was recorded using standard procedures. Blood samples were collected for parasitological and microbiological evaluation using standard procedures. Automated and manual techniques were used to analyze hematological indices (hemoglobin, packed cell volume (PCV), white blood cell count (WBC), and platelets) and biochemical markers (alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)). Among the 250 pregnant women sampled, the prevalence of single malaria infections was 51.2% (n=128), while the prevalence of single HBV infections was 4.8% (n=12). The antenatal profile indicated that 11.2% (n=28) of the pregnant women were HIV positive. The prevalence of malaria-HBV co-infection was found to be 8.4% (n=21), with none of the women with malaria-HBV co-infection testing positive for HIV; however, some exhibited HBV-HIV co-infection. Socio-demographic characteristics showed no significant association with any infection status (p > 0.05). Notably, single HBV infection was significantly associated with BMI (p = 0.045). Hematological analysis revealed that women co-infected with malaria and HBV had significantly lower (p < 0.05) mean hemoglobin (9.70+1.35 g/dL) and PCV (29.10+4.04%) levels compared to those with single HBV (10.90+1.32 g/dL and 32.70+3.96%) and malaria infections (10.32+1.38 g/dL and 30.96+4.14%), respectively. Other parameters did not differ significantly across groups (p > 0.05). Results suggest that there is a moderate burden of malaria-HBV co-infection among pregnant women in Enugu State, posing an equal threat across different socio-economic strata. Co-infection significantly worsens the maternal clinical profile by driving down hemoglobin and PCV levels. Furthermore, HBV infection in overweight or obese pregnant individuals highlights the risk of gestational diabetes.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Urinary Schistosomiasis among School-aged Children and School Staff in Wadata, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

T. J. Kposu — 2026-06-26

Background: Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by Schistosoma parasites and transmitted through contact with contaminated freshwater. It remains a major burden in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly among school-aged children in endemic regions.

Aim: This study assessed the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among school-aged children and school staff in Wadata, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, and determined the association between infection prevalence and selected socio-demographic, clinical, environmental and behavioural risk factors.

Study Design: A cross-sectional descriptive study design was employed.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Wadata, a riverine community in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, among school-aged children and school staff.

Methodology: Laboratory analyses were carried out at the Zoology Laboratory of Rev. Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University, Makurdi. A total of 200 urine samples were collected from participants during mid-morning hours using sterile, labelled containers. Socio-demographic characteristics and risk-factor information were obtained using structured questionnaires. Urine samples were examined for the presence of Schistosoma haematobium eggs using the polycarbonate membrane filtration technique. Data were analysed using SPSS version 27.0. Chi-square analysis was used to determine associations between infection prevalence and selected risk factors, with statistical significance set at P < 0.05.

Results: Of the 200 participants examined, 28 tested positive for urinary schistosomiasis, giving an overall prevalence of 14.00%. Males recorded a significantly higher prevalence (22.22%) than females (8.40%) (χ² = 7.644, P = 0.006). Infection was predominantly observed among participants aged 10-19 years (15.14%), although age was not significantly associated with infection (χ² = 2.64, P = 0.620). Among the clinical symptoms assessed, blood in urine (27.27%; χ² = 4.538, P = 0.033) and painful urination (35.00%; χ² = 6.317, P = 0.012) showed significant associations with infection prevalence. Blood in stool, abdominal pain, fatigue or weakness, diarrhoea and absence of symptoms showed no significant associations (P > 0.05). Water-contact activities, including fishing (94.12%; χ² = 47.923, P = 0.001), swimming (86.36%; χ² = 62.639, P = 0.001), combined fishing and swimming (93.75%; χ² = 45.474, P = 0.001), washing (63.16%; χ² = 24.120, P = 0.001) and playing in water (58.62%; χ² = 31.956, P = 0.001), were significantly associated with infection. Environmental and behavioural risk factors such as proximity to streams or rivers (χ² = 66.720, P = 0.001), frequent use of streams (χ² = 114.730, P = 0.001), presence of snails in water bodies (χ² = 33.001, P = 0.001), urinating or defecating in streams (χ² = 40.589, P = 0.001) and main source of water (χ² = 11.492, P = 0.042) were also significantly associated with urinary schistosomiasis prevalence.

Conclusion: Urinary schistosomiasis remains a public health concern among school-aged children and school staff in Wadata, Makurdi, particularly among individuals frequently exposed to natural water bodies. The findings highlight the importance of sustained health education, improved access to safe water, environmental sanitation and regular mass drug administration programmes to reduce transmission.

Parasitic Contamination of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Sold in Open-Air Markets in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study

Valerie C. Achoru — 2026-06-29

Background: Fresh fruits and vegetables are important components of a healthy diet but may serve as vehicles for intestinal parasites when contaminated during production, transport, marketing, or handling. This study assessed parasitic contamination of selected fruits and vegetables sold in open-air markets in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between July and September 2025. A total of 180 samples, comprising lettuce, cabbage, carrot, tomato, cucumber, and garden egg, were randomly purchased from five major open-air markets in Jos metropolis. Samples were processed using sedimentation and centrifugation techniques. The resulting sediments were examined microscopically after Lugol's iodine staining for the presence of parasite eggs, cysts, larvae, and other diagnostic stages. Data were summarised using frequencies and percentages, and differences in contamination across markets were assessed using the chi-square test at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05.

Results: Overall, 94 of 180 samples were contaminated with at least one intestinal parasite, giving a prevalence of 52.22%. The parasites detected were Strongyloides stercoralis (42.31%), hookworm species (21.50%), Ascaris lumbricoides (14.42%), Entamoeba histolytica (14.42%), and Enterobius vermicularis (7.69%). Cabbage had the highest contamination rate (80%), followed by lettuce (70%), carrot (60%), tomato (46.67%), garden egg (30%), and cucumber (23.33%). Market-level contamination ranged from 41.67% in Terminus market to 63.89% in Farin Gada market, but the difference was not statistically significant.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that fruits and vegetables sold in selected open-air markets in Jos are frequently contaminated with intestinal parasites. Improved hygiene during production, transport, display, and household preparation is needed to reduce potential exposure to food-borne parasitic infections.

Prevalence of Geo-Helminth Parasites in Riverine Area in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria

Friday Inalegwu — 2026-06-29

Soil-transmitted helminths remain an important environmental and public health concern in tropical communities where sanitation, flooding and soil exposure may support parasite transmission. This study assessed the prevalence of geo-helminth parasites in soil samples from a riverine community in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, and examined their association with selected soil physicochemical factors. A cross-sectional environmental survey was conducted in February 2025. A total of 100 soil samples were collected from five locations: riverbank, market square, open restaurant, farm area and household surroundings, with 20 samples obtained from each site. Samples were examined using the zinc sulphate flotation method to detect helminth eggs and larvae. Soil pH, temperature and texture were also assessed.

The overall prevalence of geo-helminth contamination was 61.0%. The farm area recorded the highest prevalence, 19/20 (95.0%), followed by the open restaurant, 15/20 (75.0%), households, 12/20 (60.0%), riverbank, 11/20 (55.0%) and market place, 4/20 (20.0%). The detected parasites were Ascaris lumbricoides, 33 (33.0%); Strongyloides stercoralis, 31 (31.0%); hookworms, 17 (17.0%); and Trichuris trichiura, 7 (7.0%). Loamy soil had the highest contamination rate, 19/20 (95.0%), while sandy soil had the lowest, 4/20 (20.0%). Geo-helminth prevalence was highest at pH 7.09 and at a soil temperature of 31.40°C. A weak positive correlation was observed between prevalence and soil pH, while soil temperature showed a weak negative correlation with prevalence. The findings indicate substantial soil contamination in Agwan-Jukun and suggest that location, soil texture, pH and temperature may influence geo-helminth distribution in the study area.

Seasonal Transmission Dynamics of Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni in Endemic Areas of Ardo-Kola and Jalingo LGAs of Taraba State, Nigeria

E. Allahnanan — 2026-07-03

Schistosomiasis remains an important neglected tropical disease in endemic communities where transmission is influenced by environmental conditions and human water-contact behaviour. This study assessed seasonal variation in the transmission of Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni in selected endemic communities of Ardo-Kola and Jalingo Local Government Areas of Taraba State, Nigeria. A descriptive cross-sectional study with seasonal sampling was conducted during the rainy (October and early November), dry-harmattan (December and January), and dry-heat seasons (late February and March). A total of 600 participants were examined, with 200 participants sampled in each season. Urine samples were examined for S. haematobium eggs using the urine filtration technique, while stool samples were examined for S. mansoni eggs using the Kato-Katz thick smear method. Questionnaire-based information on sociodemographic characteristics was also collected. The data generated from this study were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. The overall prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was 16.8% (101/600), while intestinal schistosomiasis was 14.7% (88/600). Co-infection with both species was recorded in 3.2% (19/600) of participants. Seasonal variation was observed for both urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis. Urinary schistosomiasis was highest during the dry-heat season, with 51 infections among 200 participants, followed by the rainy season with 27 infections and the dry-harmattan season with 23 infections. Intestinal schistosomiasis was also highest during the dry-heat season, with 40 infections among 200 participants, compared with 24 infections in both the rainy and dry-harmattan seasons. Co-infection was highest during the rainy season and lowest during the dry-harmattan season. Statistical analysis showed significant seasonal variation in urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis, while seasonal variation in co-infection was not significant.

The findings indicate that schistosomiasis transmission persists in the study communities and varies by season. Seasonal patterns should be considered when planning surveillance, health education, water, sanitation, hygiene interventions, and mass drug administration.

Parasitic Contamination of Fruits and Vegetables Sold in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria: Public Health Implications

A. B. Akeredolu — 2026-07-03

Aims: Fruits and vegetables are common foods that provide the human body with vitamins, fibre and other compounds required for healthy growth and development. Most fruits are eaten raw, with little or no processing. This study investigated the role of contaminated fruits and vegetables in parasite transmission among humans.

Place and Duration: The study was carried out in fruit markets in Ile-Ife, an urban university town in south-western Nigeria. Samples were collected from April to June 2025.

Methodology: One hundred and forty fruit samples, comprising 20 samples each from seven fruit types, and 50 vegetable samples, comprising 10 samples each from five vegetable types, were collected from fruit vendors in fresh fruit markets, except almond fruits, which were picked from under almond trees in the community. The samples were processed for parasite egg/cyst recovery using the rinse and sedimentation method.

Results: Eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides and hookworm, cysts of Giardia lamblia, and larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis were recovered. The highest contamination was found in almond fruits (60%), followed by date palm (40%), tiger nuts (35%), watermelon (30%), and orange and banana (20% each). Among the vegetables, the contamination rate was highest in cabbage (40%), followed by carrot and African spinach (30% each), while the least contamination (20%) was recorded in jute and lettuce. Overall contamination in fruits was 29.3%, while that of vegetables was 28.0%. Ascaris lumbricoides (12.9%) was the most common parasitic contaminant among the fruits, while hookworm (20.0%) was the most reported contaminant among the vegetables. The overall prevalence of contamination in the 190 fruits and vegetables examined was 28.9%. Statistical comparison among fruit types showed a significant difference in contamination rates (p = 0.004).

Conclusion: Consumption of unwashed fruits or improperly cooked vegetables can put humans at risk of acquiring parasitic infections. Therefore, fruits and vegetables should be thoroughly washed before consumption.

Evaluation of Intestinal Parasites in Freshwater at the Confluence of Rivers Niger and Benue, Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria

A. A. Aransi — 2026-07-07

Globally, parasitic contamination of water is a major public health concern because living organisms depend on water. This study evaluated parasitic contamination in Rivers Niger and Benue at their confluence in Lokoja, Kogi State, Nigeria. A total of 544 freshwater samples were collected from four locations along the confluence and examined for parasites using sedimentation techniques between January and August 2022. Chi-square and ANOVA tests were used to determine significant differences in parasite prevalence and distribution across locations and seasons. Of the 544 samples examined, 223 (41.00%) were positive for thirteen parasite species. Entamoeba histolytica had the highest prevalence, 40 (17.94%), followed by Trichuris trichiura, 29 (13.00%), while Cystoisospora belli had the lowest prevalence, 2 (0.90%). Kpata recorded the highest contamination rate, 78 (57.35%), whereas Adankolo recorded the lowest rate, 30 (22.06%). A statistically significant difference was observed among the four locations (P < 0.05). Samples collected during the rainy season were more contaminated, 167 (43.49%), than those collected during the dry season, 56 (35.00%). The findings indicate high parasitic contamination at the confluence and suggest the need for improved hygienic practices, public awareness and proper treatment of water before domestic use.

Phytochemical Analysis and in-vitro Larvicidal Effect of Ethanolic Leaf Extract of Hyptis suaveolens against the 4th Instar Larvae of Anopheles gambiae

C. O. Ishar — 2026-07-11

This study evaluated the phytochemical composition and in vitro larvicidal activity of ethanolic leaf extract of Hyptis suaveolens against fourth-instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae. Fresh leaves of H. suaveolens were collected, washed, air-dried under shade, pulverised and extracted by maceration using 70% ethanol. The chemical constituents of the extract were assessed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Larvicidal activity was tested under laboratory conditions at five extract concentrations: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%. Each treatment was replicated three times, with 20 fourth-instar larvae introduced into each replicate. Larval mortality was recorded after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 24 hours of exposure. Lethal concentration and lethal time values were estimated using probit regression analysis, while mortality data were analysed using one-way analysis of variance and Pearson chi-square test at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05. The GC-MS analysis identified 25 compounds in the leaf extract. Squalene was the most abundant compound, with a peak area of 30.70%, whereas 1,4-Bis(trimethylsilyl)benzene had the lowest peak area of 0.33%. Larval mortality increased with extract concentration and exposure duration. The lowest mortality was recorded at 10% concentration, while 100% mortality was observed at 50% concentration after 24 hours. The estimated LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values were 27.78 and 41.65, respectively. The LT₅₀ and LT₉₀ values were 15.59 hours and 104.82 hours, respectively. These findings indicate that ethanolic leaf extract of H. suaveolens showed concentration- and time-dependent larvicidal activity against fourth-instar larvae of A. gambiae under laboratory conditions.

Assessment of Bacteriological, Parasitological, and Physicochemical Agents in Pipe-borne Water in Selected Flooded Areas of Rivers State

Evelyn Orevaoghene Onosakponome — 2026-07-11

Water quality in flood-prone communities may be affected by seasonal changes that promote the movement of microbial and physicochemical contaminants into domestic water supplies. This study assessed bacteriological, parasitological, and physicochemical parameters in pipe-borne water collected from selected flooded areas of Rivers State, Nigeria, during the dry and rainy seasons. A total of 50 water samples were collected from five local government areas: Eleme, Obio-Akpor, Oyigbo, Port Harcourt Local Government Area, and Tai. Bacteriological analysis was conducted using culture-based methods, Gram staining, and biochemical identification. Parasitological assessment was performed by centrifugation and microscopic examination of sediment preparations, while physicochemical parameters were analysed using standard procedures. Seasonal comparisons were performed using the Mann-Whitney U test for bacteriological and parasitological data and independent-samples t-tests for physicochemical data, with inter-location comparisons assessed by one-way analysis of variance. The mean levels of Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Klebsiella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli did not differ significantly between the dry and rainy seasons. Among the parasites examined, Entamoeba histolytica showed a significant increase during the rainy season, rising from 0.28 in the dry season to 0.64 in the rainy season. Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and chemical oxygen demand were significantly higher during the rainy season, while total hardness, magnesium hardness, and pH were significantly lower. Total suspended solids and calcium hardness did not show significant seasonal variation. Inter-location differences were observed for several bacteriological, parasitological, and physicochemical parameters. These findings indicate that pipe-borne water in the selected flood-prone communities showed seasonal variation in selected parasitological and physicochemical indicators, with greater contamination concern during the rainy season.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Schistosoma haematobium Infection among Students in a Rural Secondary School, Plateau State, Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study

Kakder Zungdet Rapshak — 2026-07-15

Background: Urinary schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma haematobium, remains a major public health problem in Nigeria, particularly among school-aged children exposed to infested freshwater. Although Plateau State is endemic for the disease, data on adolescents attending rural secondary schools remain limited.

Objective: This study aims to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of urinary schistosomiasis among students at Government Secondary School (G.S.S.) Longkat, Plateau State.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 224 randomly selected students using a multistage sampling technique. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Plateau State Specialist Hospital, Jos. Midday urine samples (10 mL) were examined for S. haematobium ova using the sedimentation method. Socio-demographic characteristics and potential risk factors were collected using a structured questionnaire. Data were analysed using SPSS version 28.0, and associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square test at P < 0.05.

Results: Thirteen of the 224 students tested positive for S. haematobium, giving an overall prevalence of 5.8% (95% CI: 3.4–9.7%). Male students had a higher prevalence than female students (9.2% vs. 3.2%), although the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.056). Infection was significantly associated with age (P < 0.001), with students aged 14–17 years (COR = 6.92, 95% CI: 1.90–25.17) and 18–21 years (COR = 8.00, 95% CI: 1.68–38.10) having higher odds of infection than those aged 10–13 years. Higher prevalences were observed among stream-water users (8.7%) and students engaged in fishing (9.1%), but these associations were not statistically significant.

Conclusion: A low but persistent prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis was observed among students at G.S.S. Longkat. Sustained school-based praziquantel administration, health education, improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions, and continued surveillance are recommended to support schistosomiasis control.

Ascaris Lumbricoides Infection: Epidemiology, Transmission Dynamics and Life Cycle, Global Disease Burden, Challenges, Treatment and Prevention

Rhoda Nwalozie — 2026-07-03

Ascariasis, caused by the giant intestinal roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, remains one of the most prevalent helminthic infections of humankind despite decades of preventive chemotherapy and substantial gains in global sanitation. The parasite's direct, faecal–soil–oral life cycle, the extraordinary environmental resilience of its embryonated eggs, and the social and ecological determinants of transmission combine to sustain endemicity across much of sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and parts of Latin America. This critical review synthesises contemporary evidence on the epidemiology, transmission dynamics, life cycle biology, global disease burden, diagnostic and therapeutic landscape, and prevention strategies relevant to A. lumbricoides infection, while paying particular attention to emerging challenges such as anthelmintic resistance, zoonotic spillover from the closely related pig parasite Ascaris suum, diagnostic insensitivity of conventional coprological methods, and the possible influence of climate change on transmission suitability. The review draws on a structured narrative synthesis of peer-reviewed literature, integrating epidemiological, parasitological, immunological, and policy-relevant evidence. Findings indicate that, although mass drug administration has reduced moderate-to-heavy intensity infections in many settings, rapid post-treatment reinfection, suboptimal efficacy of benzimidazoles against co-endemic helminths, incomplete coverage of adults and pre-school children, and the persistence of poor water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure continue to undermine progress towards the World Health Organization's 2030 elimination targets. Genomic and molecular epidemiological tools are beginning to clarify fine-scale transmission networks and the zoonotic potential of pig-associated ascarids, while candidate vaccines remain at an early developmental stage. We conclude that durable control of ascariasis will require integrated, context-specific strategies that combine optimised preventive chemotherapy, strengthened water and sanitation infrastructure, improved diagnostics, and sustained surveillance for drug resistance and zoonotic transmission, situated within a One Health framework.